An Analysis of the Fundamentals of Marketing (part 22)

Reinforcement Schedules

by

Charles Lamson

Skinner points out that it is not the reinforcement itself that is important, but rather the pattern or schedule of reinforcement that makes all the difference. He divides reinforcement into a number of types.

• Continuous reinforcement. This is when there is a one-to-one relationship between the response and the reinforcement, as in the cold that one feels when one puts an ice cube into one's hand. Skinner argues that when an act is reinforced then a person has a feeling of confidence. A golfer practices a particular shot until she feels 'confident', i.e. until she is good at it. Frequent reinforcement builds and maintains an interest in what the person is doing (Skinner, 1974). Skinner notes a drawback with continuous reinforcement, which if it fails to materialize the behavior can quickly extinguish.




On the other hand, with intermittent reinforcement the schedule of reinforcement can either be fixed interval or variable ratio.



• Interval schedules. Fixed-interval schedules require that the interval is constant from reinforcement to reinforcement. By contrast with variable interval reinforcement the time varies from one reinforcement to the next. For example, a person might spend quite a long time reading a book or Internet surfing prior to the behavior being reinforced. Frustratingly, the very delay in receiving satisfaction when serving or reading seems to harden the resolve not to give up until some is obtained. Marketers are well aware of this and creatively use delay in a number of ways, e.g. through 'teaser' advertising campaigns and the organization of large entertainment events such as concerts.
• Ratio schedules. Fixed-ratio reinforcement requires that the number of responses that must be made before reinforcement occurs is constant from one situation to the next. Some products cost more or less the same from one time period to the next, e.g. a can of beans. In variable-ratio reinforcement by contrast, one cannot predict the number of responses that must be made before reinforcement is made. All gambling systems are based on variable-ratio reinforcement. The gambler has been exposed to a program through which a highly unfavorable ratio is made effective. Foxall (1996) comments that prepurchase search for luxury or status products follows a variable ratio schedule. For example, in searching for a new coat or car - items that can provide utility and enjoyment as well as conferring status - precisely how many stores/showrooms to visit and how many coats/cars to see and try cannot be readily determined.




Research indicates that intermittent reinforcers are the most effective. It has been found that when reinforcement is intermittent, occurring less than every time the response is emitted, the level of extinction is very slow. So the reinforcement effect can be very powerful. Skinner cites examples that have little else in common, such as gambling and scientific research, where massive effort is spent for an uncertain return. he also notes how society tells the gambler that she is 'addicted' while the scientist is regarded as being 'dedicated'. He dismisses such attributions arguing that the consequence is not a matter of will power or lack of it (dedication, addiction) but of a particular reinforcement schedule. In the case of gambling, scientific discovery, and even perhaps in the search for some new products which share the characteristic of intermittent reinforcement, behavior may be sustained over long periods of time with little return.


Punishment

It can be difficult to distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment. The difference between the two is that where negative reinforcement is used to strengthen a behavior, punishment is designed to remove behavior from a repertoire. Much social advertising seeks to punish harmful behaviors such as smoking and alcohol and drug abuse. For example, the 'Know the Score' campaign in Scotland aims to provide unbiased information to users about the potential dangers associated with the ingestion of drugs, including cocaine. Skinner argues that punishment may lead a person to express feelings of shame or embarrassment. If the person changes her behavior so as to avoid further punishment, she will not feel so guilty or ashamed. Skinner emphasizes that it is important to recognize in the behavioral explanation that the person does not act because of her feelings, or because her feelings are changed, but because of the punishing contingencies to which she has been exposed.






Habitual Behavior

If one assumes that the consumer has a degree of choice in consumption behavior then continuous reinforcement (repeated satisfaction) resulting in product use increases the probability that the consumer will buy the same brand. Initially the consumer has a decision to make, but with continuous reinforce the probability of buying the same brand increases until the consumer establishes a habit.


Extinction and Forgetting

Instrumental conditioning helps to understand how a consumer may come to cease buying a product. If the person is no longer satisfied with the product then the link between the stimulus and the expected reward is broken. Extinction leads to a rapid decrease in the probability that the consumer will repurchase the same brand. For example, anti-smoking advertisements seek to break the link between smoking cigarettes and the pleasure that they bring.

Forgetting is different from extinction and occurs when the stimulus is no longer repeated or perceived. Where the advertising for a product is discontinued, for example, consumers may forget the product. Marketers counter forgetting by repetition and seeking to maintain high awareness levels.






Behaviorists do not use words that signify internal states to describe behavior. In this respect to say 'I like chocolate, or the Rolling Stones, or Perrier' is not permissible. Instead one would observe the effect that eating chocolate or listening to the Rolling Stones or drinking Perrier has on the person and if this is pleasant then one would describe these as being positively reinforcing.



*SOURCE: FUNDAMENTALS OF MARKETING, 2007, MARILYN A. STONE AND JOHN DRESMOND, 93-96*




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