Additional Bases of Power
by
Charles Lamson
Although position power and personal power are important and useful concepts in examining power, they are limited because they force you to divide "the pie" into just two pieces. R.L. Peabody named four categories of power on the basis of statements of questionnaire respondents in a police department, a welfare office, and an elementary school: power of legitimacy (laws, rules, policies); of position; of competence (professional and technical expertise); and of person.
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A study by A. C. Filley and A. J. Grimes identified 11 reasons why an individual would seek a decision from another on various work-related matters in a professional organization. These reasons, from most frequently to least frequently mentioned, were responsibility and function (the person is responsible for the particular matter); formal authority (the person is in a position to make decisions generally); control of resources (the person controls money, information, and so on); collegial (a group of peers has the right to be consulted); manipulation (the person can get the decision made in the manner desired); default or avoidance (the person is available and will deal with the problem); bureaucratic rules (the rules specify the person to consult); traditional rules (custom, tradition, or seniority specify the person to consult); equity (the person is a fair decision maker); friendship (the person is personally liked); and expertise (the person has superior knowledge of the subject). Many other power base classification systems have been developed, but the framework devised by J. R. P. French and B. Raven, appears to be the most widely accepted. They proposed that there are five bases of power: coercive power, expert power, legitimate power, referent power, and reward power. Later, Raven, collaborating with W. Kruglanski, identified a sixth power base---information power. Hersey and Marshall Goldsmith modified some of the definitions of French, Raven, and Kruglanski and proposed a seventh base of power---connection power.  The Perception of Power In the following discussion of power bases, we use the word perceived in such instances as "coercive power---the perceived ability to provide sanctions." We do this because the key issue in the concept of power is that it is not based on the reality of how much power the manager has but rather on the followers' perception of that power. Truth and reality evoke no behavior. All behavior is based on people's perception and interpretation of truth and reality. For example, when a couple has a fight, it does not matter whether the cause was real or imagined---it was just as much of a fight. It is the perception others hold about power that gives people the ability to influence. We operate using psychological maps. The caution that one must make is that no matter how hard we work or how detailed our psychological map, no matter how much information and specificity we have in our psychological map, the map is not the territory. The closer and closer we match our psychological map to the territory, however, the higher the probability that we will be able to operate effectively within that territory. Get the Information Out People must not only perceive you as having power, they must also see you as able and willing to use it. It is not enough to have access to power; you have to let people know you are willing to use it. Information has value only when you get it out to the end user in a fashion that can be understood and accepted. If you don't blow your own horn, somebody else will use it as a spittoon. Consider a father examining his son's report card and suffering mild cardiac tremors as he sees a solid column of Ds. Outraged that a product of his genes could so disgrace the family; he confronts his son: "Dave, this just won't do. I can't tolerate these grades, and if you don't show me an immediate turnaround, you're going to be grounded!" Six weeks later, Dave brings home another report card. This time the Ds are written in red ink with exclamation points. The father says, "David, get in here! I'm really upset, and now you have no choice at all. Hit those books hard or you're definitely going to be grounded!"  Next time, it's the same, except that the teacher has added some pointed remarks about Dave's inattentive behavior in class. Dave's father turns crimson, crumples his beer can and shouts, "David Ralph, this is it . . . last chance city . . . you're in real trouble with the old man now!" What has Dave learned? That his father, who has the ability to ground him, will not use the power! Because of his father's reluctance to follow through with his threatened punishments, Dave knows that all he has to do is take the heat for 6 minutes and he's off the hook for 6 weeks! Power is a matter of perception---use it or lose it! Readiness, Styles, and Power Bases The relationship between readiness, leadership style, and the power base that drives that style will be explained from the aspects of managing and leading. Coercive Power---The Perceived Ability to Provide Sanctions, Punishment, or Consequences for Not Performing Followers at readiness level R1 (characterized as unable, and unwilling or insecure). need guidance. Too much supportive behavior with people who are not performing may be perceived as permissive or as rewarding the lack of performance. Without some coercive power to drive the telling style, attempts to influence will be ineffective. Followers need to know that if they do not respond, there may be some costs, sanctions, or other consequences. These may take the form of a reprimand, cut in pay, transfer, demotion, or even dismissal. Managers often erode their coercive power by not following through. They may have the ability to impose sanctions but for one reason or another be unwilling to do so. This reluctance to use sanctions can result in a loss of power. Another way to erode coercive power is by not differentiating in the use of sanctions on the basis of performance. If people feel they will be punished regardless of performance, coercive power has little impact.  It is even possible to "talk" coercive power away. A manager begins a performance appraisal interview with a low performer by saying, "Now, look, both of us know that you've been here over 20 years and I can't fire you." In just a few words, the manager has stripped away any coercive power the follower might have perceived. Connection Power---The Perceived Association of the Leader with Influential Persons or Organizations Connection power is an important driver for telling and selling leadership styles. Usually, followers at R1 and R2 (low to moderate follower readiness) want to avoid the sanction or gain the favor they associate with powerful connections. The important issue is not whether there is a real connection, but whether there is a perception of a real connection. For example, a first-level supervisor may be regarded as having limited power. But, if that supervisor is married to a relative of the company president, the perceived connection may provide added influence with others in the organization. Reward Power---The Perceived Ability to Provide Things That People Would like to Have Reward power is enhanced if managers are seen as having the ability to give appropriate rewards. Followers who are unable but willing (R2) are most likely to try on new behaviors if they feel increases in performance will be rewarded. Rewards may include raises, bonuses, promotions, or transfers to more desirable positions. They may also include intangibles such as a pat on the back or feedback on accomplishment. In the final analysis, managers get what they reward.  A significant amount of reward power has been legislated, negotiated, and administered away. We find that this is true in the classroom as well as in almost every organization. Yet, managers themselves often erode the power that remains by making promises they do not keep. For example: Salesperson: I did it! I made the 15 percent over quota with room to spare. When am I going to get that 10-percent bonus? Sales manager: I'm sorry, but economic conditions are such that we'll have to postpone it for awhile. But don't worry. If you keep up the good work, I promise I'll make it up to you.Other managers erode their reward power by "hoping for A but rewarding B." An example might be an organization that gives all salespeople a 10-percent cost-of-living adjustment and yet the difference between reward for average sales and outstanding sales is only 1 or 2 percent. In this case, "hanging around" for another year is significantly rewarded. This practice often results in high performers losing their motivation and commitment or looking outside the company for opportunities. The problem with power derived from rewards is that rewards will often run their course. The manager will be left with an employee who is no longer motivated through the use of rewards and an organization that can no longer provide rewards. Legitimate Power---The Perception That It Is Appropriate for the Leader to Make Decisions Because of Title, Role, or Position in the Organization Legitimate power can be a useful driver for the selling and participating styles. Followers who are both unable and unwilling (low readiness) couldn't care less about whether someone's title is manager, regional manager, or vice president. And followers high in readiness can often be influenced if they feel it is appropriate for a person in that position or with that title to make that decision. For example, a salesperson might comment to a peer about the department's recent organization: "Pat should be making those kind of decisions . . . that's what the sales manager gets paid to do."  Referent Power---The Perceived Attractiveness of Interacting with the Leader In attempting to influence people who are able but insecure or unwilling (R3), high relationship behavior is necessary. If people have a confidence problem, the manager needs to encourage. If they have a motivation problem, the manager needs to discuss and problem solve. In either case, if the manager has not taken time to build rapport with, attempts to participate may be perceived as adversarial rather than helpful. Confidence, trust, and rapport are important in influencing people. If a follower feels that the manager will provide encouragement and help when it is needed, it can make an important difference in the success of the influence attempt. Referent power is based on the manager's personal traits. A manager is generally liked and admired by others because of personality. It is this liking for, admiration for, and identification with the manager that influences others. Information Power---The Perceived Access to, or Possession of, Useful Information The styles that tend to effectively influence followers at above-average readiness levels. Information power is helpful in driving these styles. This power source has grown in importance during the high-tech explosion, with the emphasis on data storage and data retrieval. Information power is based on perceived access to data. This is different from expert power, which is the understanding of or ability to use data. For example, one study found that secretaries in a major corporate office had a significant amount of information power but little expert power in some technical areas had little expertise themselves.  Expert Power---The Perception That the Leader Has Relevant Education, Experience, and Expertise Followers who are competent and confident require little direction or supportive behavior. They are able able and willing to perform *SOURCE: MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: LEADING HUMAN RESOURCES, 8TH ED., PAUL HERSEY, KENNETH H> BLANCHARD< DEWEY E. JOHNSON, PGS. 208-212*
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